Is That a Forest?

What is a forest? You know it when you see it! If you’re looking for a more specific definition, the United States Forest Service (USFS) defines forest land as being at least one acre in size, having at least 10 percent tree cover (or having formerly had such cover), and being capable of regrowing trees. At AFM, we manage forest lands of all varieties, including naturally occurring forests and plantations. We are committed to sustainably managing our clients’ forest lands, regardless of location or origin.

First, we’ll start our exploration with natural forests. Naturally occurring forests have developed over time with minimal human intervention, containing a diverse mix of tree species, plants, and wildlife. Although natural forests occur worldwide, our focus will be on those in the United States, specifically in the Pacific Northwest, the Appalachians, and the Southeast. In these lush forests, trees grow through natural regeneration, facilitated by seed dispersal, natural disturbances, and succession— the process by which the forest type or dominant species transitions from one to another.

• Seed dispersal: Seeds are dispersed through natural agents like wind, water, and animals. Tree species that produce lightweight seeds, such as maples and pines, can be carried by the wind to new locations. Similarly, streams and rivers carry seeds to new areas, aiding in regeneration in riparian zones. Lastly, birds, mammals, and insects help disperse seeds by eating fruits (i.e., acorns and berries) and depositing them elsewhere through droppings.
• Disturbances: Fires, storms, and flooding create space for new growth. Pine forests rely on periodic fires to clear out old vegetation and trigger seed germination. As storms and wind fell old or weak trees, the canopy opens up, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor and stimulate new growth. Flooding also exposes fresh soil, creating opportunities for seedlings to establish themselves.
• Biodiversity: Often, a variety of tree species grow in naturally regenerating forests; the forest regrows at different rates, resulting in a more complex forest structure due to varying growth rates. Herbivores (like deer) browse on certain plants, which naturally controls competition among seedlings.

The Pacific Northwest is primarily a temperate forest ecosystem, and several key conifer tree species thrive there, for instance, Douglas-fir, Western hemlock, and red alder. Black bears, Roosevelt elk, cougar, and marten call these tall, dense forests home, along with their avian and aquatic counterparts, including Northern Spotted Owls, marbled murrelets, and sockeye salmon.

The Appalachians (Eastern U.S.) are primarily composed of deciduous and mixed hardwood forests, featuring key tree species such as oak, hickory, sugar maple, Eastern hemlock, tulip poplar, and Eastern white pine. These forests are home to mammals such as white-tailed deer, black bears, and eastern gray squirrels; birds like wild turkeys, Barred Owls, and Wood Thrushes; and reptiles and amphibians like timber rattlesnakes and eastern box turtles.

Finally, the Southeast is predominantly composed of pines, such as loblolly, longleaf, slash, and bottomland hardwoods. Wetlands are also a critical habitat here, providing hospitable conditions for American alligators and gopher tortoises. Iconic mammal species include black bears and wild boars, and the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker and Swallow-Tailed Kite pepper the canopy and skies.

Now that we have examined natural forests, let’s turn our attention to plantations.

Plantation forests are human-planted for specific purposes, such as timber production or carbon sequestration. These forests are common in regions with high timber demand and favorable growing conditions. Specifically in the southeastern United States, loblolly pine plantations are often cultivated for timber and paper production. These sites are actively planted, thinned, and harvested, often over multiple rotations during a forester’s career. Since these sites are frequently monoculture (meaning one or very few tree species grow here), there is less tree diversity; however, there are many wildlife species that call these forests home, with proper forest management by a professional forester.

Here are some tree species and wildlife inhabitants per region:

• Pacific Northwest: Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, Western hemlock, and red alder are commonly planted. Black-tailed deer often graze in young plantations where shrubs and grasses grow, and elk use clear-cut areas for foraging before canopy closure. Bird species like the American Kestrel hunt in open plantation areas, and Great Horned Owls nest in large trees left behind in plantations.
• Appalachians: The tree species frequently found in Appalachian plantations include loblolly pine, oaks, and poplars. White-tailed deer and wild turkeys nest and search for food in young pine plantations, and Bobwhite Quails prefer the open understory in pine plantations.
• Southeast: Loblolly pine, longleaf pine, and slash pine are routinely planted in plantations in the Southeast. White-tailed deer feed on vegetation in early plantation growth stages, and wild boars can be found here as well. Their behavior can be damaging at times, so land managers need to keep an eye on their activity. Two species that are endangered in specific Southeastern states, the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker and the gopher tortoise, find refuge in pine plantations; the former nest in older pine plantations with mature trees, and the latter use open pine plantations with sandy soils.

Of course, wildlife enjoys plantations at varying stages of development. Young plantations (0-10 years old) with grasses, shrubs, and successional plants attract deer and rabbits, and open areas attract kestrels and hawks who prey on small mammals. Mid-rotation plantations (10-30 years old) provide forest and shelter to raccoons, foxes, and bobcats, but understory food sources are limited as the canopy above closes. Lastly, mature plantations (30+ years old) can provide high-quality habitat for wildlife if prescribed burning and thinning are utilized. Woodpeckers and owls nest in mature trees, especially if snags (dead, standing trees) and tree cavities are preserved.

Whether a forest is natural or a plantation, AFM foresters manage the land for a variety of goals and objectives.

Depending on a landowner’s goals, various silvicultural activities can support timber, recreation, fuels reduction, and conservation in natural and plantation forests alike. Prescribed burning, thinning and pruning, and invasive species control can combat fuels development (and improve wildlife habitat), and protecting riparian buffers and managing diverse age structures encourage different wildlife species. Maintaining the aesthetics of the natural forest can create endless recreational opportunities, from hiking and birdwatching to hunting and sheer relaxation. Managing natural forests is about working with the forest’s unique characteristics, not against them.

As previously mentioned, plantation forests often have financial objectives and are managed accordingly for higher productivity, faster growth, and economic returns. This does not mean that forest health and sustainability benefits are mutually exclusive; in fact, they often work in concert with one another. A new plantation starts with site preparation, which prepares the land for tree planting and early growth. This may include controlled burns, herbicide application, and mechanical operations like tilling the soil and removing debris. After careful consideration, trees are selected based on site conditions, market demand, and climate. Genetically improved seedlings are frequently used, as they are selectively bred for disease resistance; this is not to be confused with genetically modified organisms. Next, weaker and thinner trees are removed to reduce competition and allow the remaining trees to thrive. This can happen as pre-commercial thinning (before trees reach a marketable size) or commercial thinning (harvesting smaller trees for pulpwood, allowing larger trees to mature). As the plantation forest grows, foresters are constantly monitoring for pests and diseases while controlling catastrophic fires through prescribed burn operations. Depending on the species and demand, trees can be harvested after 25-30 years for pines and 40+ years for hardwoods. Clear-cutting is common in plantation forests, but it is done sustainably, as more trees are replanted on the site so the process can begin again.

Whether a forest is natural or a plantation, foresters use science-backed techniques to manage the land. These time-tested strategies have proven efficacy in both forest types, and landowners have trusted the expert foresters and land managers at AFM for nearly 60 years. For assistance in meeting your goals and objectives and preserving the land for generations to come, reach out to us today.